Feudal Land System and Social Hierarchy in Early Medieval Eastern India: An Epigraphic Perspective

Name of The Authors - Biswarup Chatterjee 

                                      & Satabdi Barman

Introduction: Rethinking Feudalism in Early India

Feudalism, a term originally used to describe medieval European society, has also been applied to early medieval India. However, historians now approach this concept cautiously, recognizing regional variations and complexities.

In early medieval Eastern India—covering Bengal, Assam, Bihar, and Odisha—the socio-political structure was deeply rooted in land-based relationships, fragmented authority, and agrarian economy.

This blog explores how inscriptions, especially copper plate grants, reveal the functioning of land ownership, hierarchy, and power relations in this period.

Understanding Feudal Structure in Early Medieval India

Fragmented Political Authority

Unlike centralized empires, early medieval India witnessed:

• Multiple regional kingdoms
• Fluid political boundaries
• Delegation of authority to feudatories

Kings often retained control over core regions while granting peripheral areas to subordinate rulers in exchange for:

• Loyalty
• Tribute
• Military service

This created a layered political system resembling feudal arrangements.

Land Grants as a Political Tool

One of the most significant features of this period was the granting of land instead of cash salaries.

Recipients of Land Grants

• Brahmins
• Temples and monasteries
• Royal officials
• Feudatory chiefs

These grants often included:

• Revenue rights
• Judicial authority
• Control over villages

This system strengthened both religious institutions and administrative networks.

Agrarian Economy and Social Hierarchy

A Pyramid of Power

The early medieval society of Eastern India was structured like a pyramid:

Top Level

• King (Supreme authority)

Intermediate Classes

• Rājā, Mahāsāmanta, Sāmanta
• Mahāmaṇḍalika, Bhogika
• Mahattaras (village elites)

Lower Landowning Class

• Kuṭumbins (peasant proprietors)

Bottom Level

• Karṣakas (cultivators, sharecroppers, labourers)

This hierarchy clearly reflects a land-centered social order.

Role of Mahattaras and Kuṭumbins

Mahattaras (Village Elites)

• Wealthy landholders
• Village decision-makers
• Sometimes engaged in trade and banking

Kuṭumbins (Householders)

• Small landowners
• Agriculturally dependent
• Represented rural landed class

Interestingly, inscriptions show a transition where mercantile groups shifted toward agriculture, indicating economic change.

Epigraphic Evidence: What Inscriptions Reveal

Copper Plate Inscriptions as Historical Sources

Copper plate inscriptions are crucial for understanding:

• Land ownership patterns
• Administrative systems
• Social hierarchy

Key Examples

Khalimpur Copper Plate (Dharmapala)

• Donation of villages to a temple
• Included markets and economic resources

Nalanda Copper Plate (Devapala)

• Villages granted to Buddhist monasteries

Bargaon Grant (Ratnapala)

• Land gifted to Brahmins

These inscriptions demonstrate that land was the primary medium of wealth and power.

Religious Institutions and Land Control

Land grants to temples and monasteries served multiple purposes:

• Religious merit (dharma)
• Political legitimacy
• Economic stability

Brahmins played a crucial role by:

• Performing rituals
• Constructing royal genealogies
• Supporting kings’ divine authority

Thus, religion and politics were deeply interconnected.

Administrative System and Payment Through Land

Shift from Cash to Land-Based Remuneration

Texts like the Arthashastra and Manusmriti indicate evolving administrative practices:

• Earlier: Officials received salaries
• Later: Land grants became common

Officials such as:

• Viṣayapati (district head)
• Uparika (revenue officer)
• Samāhartā (tax collector)

were compensated through land assignments.

Example: Harsha’s Administration

During the reign of Harshavardhana:

• One-fourth of revenue was assigned to officials
• Ministers and governors held land for personal support

This reflects the consolidation of feudal administrative practices.

Regional Variations in Eastern India

The feudal system was not uniform. Variations existed across:

• Bengal
• Odisha
• Assam

Different inscriptions mention:

• Bhūpāla (tribal chiefs)
• Mahābhogika (regional officials)
• Mandaleśvara (provincial administrators)

This highlights a complex and flexible administrative structure.

Conclusion: A Land-Based Civilization

The early medieval period in Eastern India reveals a society where:

• Land was the central source of power
• Social hierarchy was deeply agrarian
• Religious and political authority were intertwined
• Inscriptions provide crucial historical insights

Rather than a rigid European-style feudalism, India developed a distinct, regionally adapted land-based socio-political system.

Keywords (For SEO Tag Section)

Feudalism India, Early Medieval Bengal, Land Grant System, Copper Plate Inscriptions, Agrarian Economy India, Social Hierarchy Ancient India, Epigraphy Bengal, Post Gupta Period, Temple Land Grants, Brahmanical Patronage

 

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