Biṣaharῑ Worship among the Rajbanshi Community of North Bengal: Folk Rituals, Manasā Tradition, and Cultural Identity

                                       

                                                    Plate  1 - Cork Image of Goddess Biṣaharῑ.

                                       (Courtesy: https://images.app.goo.gl/DxmLgdswLfrRFYaW6 )

  Plate  2 - Earthen Sculpture of Goddess Biṣaharῑ.

(Courtesy: https://www.indiamart.com/proddetail/bengali-style-maa-manasa-devi-2853469678288.html )

Author - Biswarup Chatterjee.

Abstract: This article explores the traditional worship of Biṣaharῑ, a local manifestation of the snake goddess Manasā, among the Rajbanshi community of North Bengal, particularly in Cooch Behar and Alipurduar. Biṣaharῑ, also known as Padma, is revered as a household deity and is closely linked to the region’s folk religious practices and cultural heritage. The article delineates the forms of Biṣaharῑ worship Kāni-Biṣaharῑ and Gῑdālῑ-Biṣaharῑ highlighting their social significance, seasonal observance, and ritualistic variations. It further examines the ritual components including Deodhāni dance, folk songs like Biṣohorā Gān, and the musical instrumentation unique to the Rajbanshi community. Drawing connections with tantric Buddhism, the paper investigates the appearance of the goddess as Jāṅgulῑ in Vajrayāna texts and as Śaṅkaraputrikā in Hindu mantras. Literary representations in Maṅgalkāvyas and folk epics such as Manasāmaṅgalkāvya and Manasāvijaya are analyzed to trace the mythic evolution of the deity. The article concludes that Biṣaharῑ worship, while rooted in Rajbanshi tradition, extends its cultural reachness across other local communities, symbolizing a vibrant continuum of folk religiosity, fertility symbolism, and communal identity in rural Bengal.

Keywords:
Biṣaharῑ, Manasā, Rajbanshi community,  Manasāmaṅgalkāvya, Kāni-Biṣaharῑ, Gῑdālῑ-Biṣaharῑ, Deodhāni dance, Manasār Bhāsān Pālā Gān, Vajrayāna Buddhism, Jāṅgulῑ, Śaṅkaraputrikā, snake goddess worship, folk rituals of Bengal, Maṅgalkāvyas, household deity, Kamrupi Brahmins.         

 

          The snake goddess Manasā, revered as Biṣaharῑ in Northern India, holds a sacred place in the hearts of the Rajbanshi community residing in regions like Cooch Behar and Alipurduar in North Bengal ( Plate 1 & 2). Known also by the name Padma, venerated as a household deity, deeply embedded in the domestic and spiritual life of the Rajbanshis.

          In the cultural milieu of this region, a rich tradition of festivals and folk rituals thrives among the Rajbanshi-speaking population. These religious observances are often accompanied by vibrant cultural performances such as folk dances, songs, theatrical plays, and various indigenous activities. Among these, the worship of Biṣaharῑ stands out as one of the most significant and revered traditions.

          During this sacred ritual, the goddess Manasā is worshipped in her Biṣaharῑ form, and the celebration is enriched by the singing of "Manasā Maṅgal", popularly known as the "Biṣohorā Gān" (the song that is dedicated to or based on Biṣaharῑ and her themes). This puja is generally performed on auspicious days in the Bengali months of Jyaishṭha (May-June), Āṣāḍha (June-July), and Bhādro (August-September), and is intended to appease the goddess revered as the protector from snake bites and the guardian against poison. The term derive from the Sanskrit word “viṣaṃ” (poison) and “hari” (remover), collectively meaning “remover of poison”.

          Traditionally, almost every Rajbanshi household hosts this puja with deep devotion. An altar (Thān) is typically set up in the northern or eastern courtyard, where rituals are conducted. While Kamrupi Brahmins now officiate the ceremonies, in earlier times the Rajbanshi Adhikaris (priests) were entrusted with the sacred rites. To them, Biṣaharῑ is also known by other revered names such as Barmāṇῑ, Brahmāṇῑ, and Bhagavatῑ.

          This worship often precedes marriage ceremonies and includes folk songs along with Deodhāni dances (traditional woman centric folk dance) performed in honor of the goddess (Plate 3 & 4). Traditional Indian musical instruments, especially the Kāṅg, Dhol, khol, flute play a vital role in these rituals, enhancing the festive atmosphere. The distinctive use of music and dance adds a unique cultural signature to the celebration of Biṣaharῑ. 

                                                               Plate 3 -  Deodhani Dance.

                                    (Courtesy: https://images.app.goo.gl/TT3ZLfpF1ijfpEMC9)

                                          Plate 4 - Exploring The Enchanting Deodhani Dance.

                                    (Courtesy: (https://images.app.goo.gl/r6eykMCEEjThPMqB9)

Within the Rajbanshi community, there are two distinct forms of Biṣaharῑ worship:

1. Kāni-Biṣaharῑ – Performed for the well-being and prosperity of domestic life, this form of worship can be observed on any day.
2. Gῑdālῑ-Biṣaharῑ – Usually associated with wedding rituals and marked by the singing of “Biṣaharῑār Gān” (song of Biṣaharῑ ).

The term Biṣaharῑ appears in the dhyāna mantra (meditation mantra) of goddess Manasā :

“…vande śaṅkara putrikāt biṣaharῑṃ padmodbhavāṃ jāṅgulῑṃ…”
("I bow to Biṣaharῑ, the daughter of Shiva, born from the lotus, the healer of poisons…”)

In this mantra, she is also referred to as Jāṅgulῑ (Plate 5 & 6) and Śaṅkaraputrikā, affirming her divine lineage as Lord Shiva’s daughter. Interestingly, Jāṅgulῑ also appears in Vajrayāna Buddhism as a serpent goddess capable of healing and preventing snake bites. The tantric text Sādhanamālā elaborates her divine form and powers in great detail.

Plate 5 - Bronze Sculpture of Goddess Jāṅgulῑ.

(Courtesy: https://images.app.goo.gl/tZLnQXWj9UoukoHi9

 

Plate 6 - Jāṅgulῑ (illustration)

(Courtesy: Bhattacharjee, 2021, Page 145 )

          The impact of the worship of goddess Manasā on the rural society of Bengal is profound, deeply influencing both social life and cultural expression. Numerous poets have celebrated her glory through folk and mainstream literature. Noteworthy among them is Jagjjiban Ghosal, who composed the “Manasār Bhāsān Pālā Gān” a narrative song performed during the Biṣaharῑ Puja, which is an integral part of the Manasā Maṅgal kāvya.

          The Mahābhārata narrates the story of Manasā’s marriage with clarity and reverence, while Purāṇic literature first records her birth. Later, between the 13^th and 18^th centuries CE, the Maṅgalkāvyas of Bengal, a devotional epic dedicated to local deities offered elaborate portrayals of her legend. Among them, "Manasāmaṅgalkāvya" by Vijay Gupta and "Manasāvijaya" (1495 CE) by Bipradas Pipilai are regarded as foundational texts. According to the scholars, at least fifteen Manasāmaṅgalkāvyas have been composed in reverence to Manasā.

          The symbolism of the snake often associated with fertility and regeneration suggests that Biṣaharῑ may also be worshipped by those seeking offspring. Moreover, when a person falls ill or faces adversity, they often make a vow to the goddess, fulfilling it through puja if they recover, as a gesture of gratitude and devotion.

          In conclusion, Biṣaharῑ Puja is not just a religious observance but a living tradition deeply rooted in the cultural identity of the Rajbanshi people of North Bengal. While it is primarily a Rajbanshi practice, members of other local communities such as the Khen, Blacksmith, Potter and fishing communities also participate in the worship, affirming its inclusive and enduring nature. This ritual remains a powerful testament to the region’s folk spirituality, heritage, and communal harmony.

                          —----------

 

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Ahamad, Khan Chaudhary Amanatulla. 1990 [rep.]. Kochbiharer Itihas 1 (in Bengali). Kochbihar: Kochbihar State Press.

Bhattacharjee, Binoytosh. Bouddhader Deb-Debi. Edited by Ramesh Chandra Mukhopadhayay and Sumanapal Bhikkhu. Revised Mahabodhi ed., Kolkata: Maha Bodhi Book Agency, 2021. First published 1955 by Visva-Bharati University. Includes 169 illustrations.

Ryley, J. Horton. 1899. Ralph Fitch, England's Pioneer to India and Burma: His Companions and Contemporaries with his Remarkable Narrative told in His Own Words. London: T.E Unwin.

Majumdar, Durgadas. 1977. West Bengal District Gazetteers, Koch Bihar. Calcutta: Information and Public Relation Department.

The Rare Reclining Sculpture of Lord Balarama at Daria Balai Dham, Cooch Behar: History, Iconography, and Cultural Significance

 

                                              The Idols of Sleeping Balarama in Dariya Balai Temple.

Author – Biswarup Chatterjee

                                                                      

Introduction

         India has long been celebrated as a land of vibrant cultural traditions, heritage, and artistic excellence. Every region of the Indian subcontinent possesses its own distinctive folk traditions, crafts, sculptures, and ritual practices that collectively shape the cultural identity of the nation. Among these artistic expressions, sculpture occupies a particularly significant place, reflecting the religious consciousness, aesthetic sensibilities, and social imagination of ancient India.

             The state of West Bengal represents one of the richest cultural landscapes of India. Its literary traditions, folk culture, temple architecture, terracotta art, and sculptural heritage together form a remarkable historical continuum. The cultural diversity of Bengal is deeply rooted in regional traditions preserved through literature, oral narratives, ritual performances, and artistic practices.

            This article explores a rare and fascinating sculptural representation of Lord Balarama located at Daria Balai Dham in the Cooch Behar district of West Bengal. The sculpture is exceptional because it depicts Lord Balarama in a reclining posture—an extremely uncommon iconographic form in Indian art history. Through archaeological observation, literary references, iconographic interpretation, and regional history, this article attempts to analyze the cultural and religious significance of this sacred site.  

Sculpture Tradition in Bengal:  A Historical background

            The history of sculpture in Bengal dates back to ancient times and developed alongside temple architecture and ritual traditions. Although Bengal’s humid climate has contributed to the deterioration of many early sculptures, archaeological discoveries from various regions reveal a rich artistic heritage.

               Some of the earliest sculptural remains in Bengal include terracotta figurines and Yakṣiṇī images discovered from sites such as Pokharna in Bankura and ancient Tāmralipti (modern Tamluk). These sculptures display stylistic features associated with the Śuṅga period and indicate Bengal’s participation in broader artistic movements across ancient India.

                Over centuries, Bengal evolved into an important center of artistic production under different dynasties, including the Palas, Senas, and Koch rulers. Terracotta temple decoration became one of Bengal’s most distinctive artistic traditions, illustrating episodes from the Rāmāyaṇa, Mahābhārata, Purāṇas, and folk narratives. 

The Cultural Heritage of Bengal and Folk Artistic Traditions 

            The cultural heritage of Bengal is deeply intertwined with folk consciousness and rural artistic traditions. Clay sculptures, terracotta plaques, dokra metal casting, wood carving, and ritual art forms continue to preserve ancient aesthetic practices.

             These artistic traditions not only reflect religious beliefs but also portray social life, agricultural practices, flora, fauna, and local mythology. Folk artistic traditions of Bengal often function as living archives of cultural memory, preserving indigenous knowledge systems across generations.

              The sculpture of Lord Balarama at Daria Balai Dham represents one such example where regional devotion, mythology, and artistic imagination merge together.

Lord Balarama in Hindu Tradition and Iconography

            Lord Balarama occupies a significant position in Hindu religious traditions, especially within the Jagannath cult and Vaiṣṇava traditions. He is widely revered as the elder brother of Lord Krishna and is associated with agriculture, fertility, physical strength, and protection.

            Balarama is commonly identified with the plough (Hala), which symbolizes agricultural prosperity. Because of this association, he is also known by several epithets such as:

• Halāyudha (Bearer of the Plough)
• Haladhara
• Baladeva
• Balabhadra

            In Hindu theology, Balarama is regarded as an avatāra of Lord Viṣṇu and simultaneously identified with Śeṣa Nāga or Ananta, the cosmic serpent.

            In classical iconography, Balarama is generally represented standing with a plough and mace. Serpent hoods above his head symbolize his divine association with Śeṣa Nāga. Literary traditions also portray him as immensely powerful and deeply connected with agrarian culture. 

The Reclining Sculpture of Lord Balarama: A Rare Representation 

            The sculpture at Daria Balai Dham is highly unusual because Lord Balarama is depicted lying flat on the ground inside the sanctum of the temple. Such a reclining posture is extremely rare in Indian sculptural traditions associated with Balarama.

            The deity is positioned along an east-west axis with the head facing east. In his right hand, he holds a plough, reinforcing his identity as the patron deity of agriculture and fertility.

This uncommon iconographic form may symbolize multiple layers of meaning:

• agricultural fertility
• cosmic rest
• ritual symbolism
• regional devotional traditions
• local interpretations of Vaiṣṇava theology

The reclining posture distinguishes this sculpture from conventional Balarama imagery found in other parts of India.  

Temple Orientation and Religious Symbolism 

            An interesting aspect of the temple is its west-facing orientation. According to references from the Bhaviṣya Purāṇa, temples dedicated to solar deities ideally face east, though west-facing orientation is also considered acceptable under specific circumstances.

            In Vedic and Purāṇic traditions, Viṣṇu is frequently associated with the Sun (Āditya-Viṣṇu). Since Balarama is considered an avatāra or manifestation of Viṣṇu, the east-west alignment of the temple may preserve traces of an ancient theological connection between solar worship and Vaiṣṇava traditions.

This architectural orientation adds another dimension to the religious significance of the site. 

Historical Debate Regarding the Temple’s Foundation  

            Scholars remain divided regarding the founder of the temple. Some historians attribute its construction to Maharaja Dhairjendra Narayan Bhupbahadur, an important ruler of the Koch dynasty during the eighteenth century.

            Others believe that the temple was established by Najirdeo Santanarayana during the reign of Maharaja Upendranarayan Bhupbahadur.

            Despite these differing opinions, the temple clearly reflects the religious patronage and cultural environment of the Koch kingdom, which played a major role in shaping the sacred geography of North Bengal. 

Location and Sacred Geography of Daria Balai Dham 

        The temple is situated near the Gadadhar River in present-day Ghogharkuthi village under Chilakhana mouja of Cooch Behar district in West Bengal.

Locally, the site is known as “Daria Balai Dham”:

• “Daria” meaning river
• “Balai” referring to Balarama

            The sacred landscape surrounding the temple contributes significantly to its spiritual identity. Riverbank temples in Bengal often functioned as ritual centers connected with pilgrimage, fertility worship, and local folk practices. 

Literary and Archaeological References to Balarama 

References to Lord Balarama appear across numerous literary and archaeological sources, including:

• Bhaviṣya Purāṇa
• Bhāgavata Purāṇa
• Harivaṃśa
• Mahābhārata
• Brahma-vaivarta Purāṇa
• Arthaśāstra

Archaeological evidence of Balarama worship also appears in:

• Indo-Greek coinage of Agathocles
• Post-Mauryan punch-marked coins
• Sculptures from Mathura
• Cambodian sculptural traditions from Phnom Da

These examples demonstrate the widespread popularity and transregional significance of Balarama worship across South and Southeast Asia. 

Cultural and Archaeological Importance of the Sculpture 

The reclining sculpture of Lord Balarama at Daria Balai Dham is important for several reasons: 

Archaeological Importance 

The sculpture represents a rare regional variation in Hindu iconography. 

Religious Significance 

It reflects the continuity of local devotional traditions and sacred geography. 

Cultural Value 

The sculpture preserves folk memory and indigenous interpretations of Vaiṣṇava traditions. 

Heritage Significance 

The temple contributes to the broader cultural heritage of Cooch Behar and North Bengal. 

Conclusion 

            The reclining sculpture of Lord Balarama at Daria Balai Dham stands as a remarkable example of Bengal’s regional religious art and sacred tradition. Its rare iconographic posture, association with agriculture and fertility, and theological symbolism make it an important subject for archaeological and cultural study.

           The temple not only preserves a unique artistic heritage but also reflects the religious syncretism, folk consciousness, and historical memory of the Koch region. As a sacred site situated within the cultural landscape of Cooch Behar, Daria Balai Dham continues to embody the enduring spiritual and artistic traditions of Bengal.

            Through further archaeological documentation, preservation initiatives, and scholarly research, this site may gain wider recognition within the broader history of Indian sculpture and regional temple traditions.

                                                   ---------------------------------

 

References

1) Ahmad, Khan Chaudhary Amanatulla. Kochbiharer Itihas. Vol. 1. Reprint 1990. Kochbihar: Kochbihar State Press.

2) Pal, Nripendra Nath. Itikathay Coochbehar: A Brief History of Coochbehar. Corrected and enlarged edition. Kolkata: Anima Prakashani, 2015. First published 2000.

3) My Personal fieldwork. 

Location of the Temple

Tibetan Funeral Customs Explained: Sky Burial, Buddhist Philosophy, and Rituals of Death in Tibet

Author - Biswarup Chatterjee    

Introduction: Death Beyond Fear - Understanding Tibetan Perspectives

The remote and mystic land of Tibet, often described as the “Forbidden Land,” preserves a fascinating spectrum of spiritual traditions. Among these, its funerary customs stand out as deeply philosophical and culturally unique. Rooted in Tibetan Buddhism, these practices reflect the doctrines of impermanence, rebirth, and the pancha bhuta (five elements) theory.  

Rather than viewing death as an end, Tibetan society understands it as a transition—an integral step in the cosmic cycle of existence. This worldview shapes a wide range of funeral practices, from sky burials to ritual mummification of revered lamas.  

Philosophical Foundation: Death and the Five Elements

Tibetan funeral rites are fundamentally connected to the idea that the human body is composed of five elements—earth, water, fire, air, and ether. Upon death, the body must return to these elements.

This philosophical framework explains why Tibetans employ multiple methods of disposal, each symbolizing a different way of returning the body to nature.

Social Attitudes Toward Death

Interestingly, Tibetan society differentiates between natural and untimely death:

• Elderly (80+ years): Death is accepted calmly, often without mourning.
• Younger individuals: Death is considered inauspicious and evokes grief and fear.

This distinction reflects a practical yet spiritual understanding of life cycles

Funeral Rituals: Preparation and Lama Guidance

Typically, funerals are conducted three to four days after death. During this time:

• A lama (Buddhist priest) is invited.
• Sacred texts are recited.
• An auspicious date and ritual method are determined.

The lama plays a central role, guiding the soul’s journey and ensuring proper ritual execution 

Major Types of Tibetan Funeral Practices

1. Sky Burial (Celestial Burial)

The most widely practiced and culturally significant method is sky burial.

Process:

• The body is carried to a high rocky platform.
• Ritual chanting and music accompany the ceremony.
• The body is dismembered and offered to vultures.
• Bones are crushed and also fed to birds.

Symbolism:

• Represents ultimate generosity—offering one's body to sustain life.
• Indicates detachment from the physical body.
• Quick consumption is believed to signify virtuous karma.   

2. Earthly Burial (Dog Consumption Ritual)

In this practice:

• The body is cut and fed to dogs.
• Remaining bones are later given to vultures.

This method is also respected and considered spiritually meaningful.  

3. Cremation

• Common for ordinary lamas and certain individuals.
• Ashes may be used to create memorial objects or statues.
• In regions like Ladakh, cremation is delayed and accompanied by extended rituals.

4. Water Burial

• Bodies are dismembered and placed in rivers.
• Usually reserved for socially marginalized individuals.
• Considered a less honorable method.  

Ritual Construction: The Funeral Procession

A traditional Tibetan bier is constructed using:

• Wooden poles tied together
• A rope-woven base
• White cloth covering the corpse

The body is then carried in procession by relatives, priests, and community members to the burial site, reinforcing the collective nature of death rituals.

Ritual Dismemberment and Symbolism

The act of dismemberment may seem shocking to outsiders, but it holds deep symbolic meaning:

• Separation of flesh from bone = separation of soul from body
• Feeding animals = returning life to nature
• Participation of priests = sacred transformation

This ritual demonstrates a profound acceptance of mortality.

Traveler Accounts and Historical Observations

Historical travelers such as Friar Odoric provide vivid descriptions of Tibetan funeral practices:

• Public processions and ritual celebrations
• Sacred handling of skulls as ritual vessels
• Belief that vultures carry souls to heaven

Such accounts highlight how outsiders interpreted Tibetan customs through their own cultural lenses.  

Special Rituals for Lamas and Elite Individuals

High Lamas:

• Bodies are preserved using salt and ritual chanting
• Later transformed into sacred statues
• Worshipped in monasteries

Wealthy Individuals:

• Bones mixed with gold dust and buried ceremonially

Ancient Practices:

• In earlier times, servants and wealth were buried alongside rulers   

Mourning Practices and Social Customs

Mourning in Tibet involves:

• Wearing simple attire for 100 days
• Avoiding grooming and ornaments
• Conducting annual rituals for the deceased

Wealthy families may sponsor extended religious ceremonies involving lamas.   

Comparative Cultural Practices

Similar funerary traditions appear across Asia:

• Thailand: Bodies fed to birds
• Korea: Ashes mixed with food for animals
• China: Ritual preservation and mummification

These parallels show a broader Asian perspective on death as transformation rather than termination.  

Conclusion: Death as Transition, Not End

Tibetan funeral customs, though often perceived as unconventional, represent a deeply philosophical approach to life and death.

These practices demonstrate:

• Acceptance of impermanence
• Integration with nature
• Spiritual continuity beyond death

Whether through sky burial or sacred preservation, Tibetan rituals affirm that death is not an end, but a passage into another state of existence.

                                                                      --------------------------

References

Ekai Kawaguchi – Three Years in Tibet (1909).

Eric Teichman – Travels of a Consular Officer in Eastern Tibet (1922).

William Woodville Rockhill – Notes on the Ethnology of Tibet (1885).