The Final Funeral Customs of the Forbidden Land.

Author - Biswarup Chatterjee 

       The remote and mystic land of Tibet, often termed the Forbidden Land, is home to a unique tapestry of spiritual beliefs and ceremonial practices that govern life and death alike. Among its most compelling and culturally distinctive traditions are its funerary customs, which reflect a deep-rooted Buddhist worldview, shaped by the philosophy of impermanence, rebirth, and the pancha bhuta or five-element theory. These customs—such as sky burials, celestial and earthly interments, and the ritual mummification of revered lamas—not only demonstrate the Tibetans' profound spiritual detachment from the body but also their perception of death as a natural transition rather than a final end.

          The article explores these diverse rites in detail, drawing from historical accounts, travelers’ observations, and Tibetan religious practices. It reveals how religion, culture, geography, and cosmology converge to shape Tibetan attitudes toward death and the afterlife, offering modern readers a rare glimpse into a society where the final farewell is an act of both sacrifice and transcendence.

Key words - Tibet , burial, Buddhist worldview, Vultures and body offering, Ritual dismemberment, Lama rituals

       In Tibet, when a person dies at the age of eighty or above, their relatives do not observe mourning. They believe that the deceased has fulfilled their natural lifespan. Death in such cases is viewed as a normal occurrence, and hence, they do not feel the need to express grief. However, in the case of younger individuals, Tibetans do mourn—believing that an inauspicious event has occurred, and they become fearful and sorrowful.

          Typically, the funeral takes place three or four days after death. During that time, a lama from a monastery visits, reads selected passages from sacred texts, and provides guidance on the auspicious date, exact time, and method for conducting the final rites. In Tibet, there are four principal funeral customs: disposing the body in water, cremation, burial, and offering it to sky birds. The most widely practiced method involves offering the corpse to vultures and dogs.

          During the funeral procession, a bier is first constructed. Two short wooden sticks are firmly tied to the ends of two longer wooden poles. Ropes are woven in the rectangular space between them to form a netted frame. A cloth is then spread over this bier, upon which the corpse is laid, and covered with another white cloth. Two individuals carry this bier on their shoulders to a predetermined burial site, typically a flat surface atop a massive rock about 25–30 feet high on a nearby sloped hill or valley platform. Priests, family members, and mourners all take part in the procession. Upon arrival, the white cloth is removed from the corpse, and priests begin chanting mantras while others play musical instruments like drums and cymbals.

         Meanwhile, a man with a broad sword approaches the body. He first slits open the stomach and removes the internal organs. Then the body is dismembered, the flesh is separated from the bones. By then, flocks of vultures gather around. Large pieces of meat are thrown towards the birds, which they devour greedily. The remaining bones are ground into powder using stones and also fed to the vultures. The priests take active part in this process as well.

        Many European travelers visited East Asia in ancient times, from whose travelogues we learn about the Tibetans. One such traveler, Friar Odoric, had the privilege of entering the interior of Tibet. Writing about Tibetan funeral customs, he described how a Tibetan son, upon his father's death, invites local priests, monks, performers, neighbors, and relatives. A celebratory procession ensues, and the body is carried through the entire region and placed on a decorated table at a designated site. There, priests sever the head of the corpse and hand it over to the son. During this process, the son and others chant prayers for the soul’s peace. The rest of the body is chopped into pieces by the priest. Once done, everyone returns to town chanting prayers. Meanwhile, eagles and vultures descend from the mountains, grab pieces of meat in their beaks, and fly away. Observers exclaim, "Look! Look! The man was truly holy—he is being taken to heaven by God’s messengers!" The son's pride increases upon the recognition of his father's virtue. He then cooks and eats the severed head and carefully preserves the skull to use as a drinking vessel in the future. Tibetans believe that rapid consumption of the body by animals is a result of the deceased’s virtuous deeds. Thus, the skull becomes a sacred vessel for offering liquor to the gods. Interestingly, 7th-century Arab travelers reported that the Chinese used to eat the flesh of enemies slain in battle.

          Chinese writers of that era described Tibetan funeral practices differently. Upon death, the corpse’s face is placed between the knees, hands under the feet, and tied tightly. The body is wrapped in its daily-used clothes and placed inside a rawhide sack. Meanwhile, men and women mourn loudly. The sack is then hung on a rice beam, and a lama from a nearby monastery is invited to recite scriptures. After a few days, the body is taken to a designated place where it is tied to a post and the flesh is cut off and fed to dogs—this practice is called "earthly burial." The bones are then ground in a stone mortar, mixed with roasted barley flour (tsampa), and fed to vultures. This second practice is called "celestial burial." Both methods are held in high regard by Tibetans.

        When a wealthy Tibetan dies, the skin is carefully removed and preserved, while the flesh and bones are mixed with gold dust, placed in a clay pot, and buried with great care. In earlier times, when a powerful person died, many living individuals and treasures were buried with the body. Victims of diseases like smallpox or infants are buried in the ground. Destitute or abandoned individuals have their bodies dismembered and floated in rivers—an act considered dishonorable. Ordinary lamas are cremated, and a stone monument is built in their memory. But the bodies of high lamas are preserved. In the case of a Dalai Lama or equivalent dignitary, the body is placed in a large box and covered in rock salt until it is completely immersed. During this time, various religious rites and chanting are performed, accompanied by flutes and other musical instruments. The box is then kept in a temple for about three months, and the deceased is shown the same reverence as when alive. Disciples pour ghee in front of the shrine and light golden lamps. Seven silver pots filled with holy water are kept. Seasonal flowers and valuable offerings are used in the worship. Common Tibetans are also allowed to participate in the worship. After three months, the moisture in the body evaporates and it becomes skeletal. A mixture of clay and powdered sandalwood is applied to the skeleton to recreate a lifelike statue, posed in a meditative Buddha posture, and placed on the temple altar. Many such temples and sanctuaries can be seen in Tibet.

         Similar customs are observed in other East Asian regions. In Thailand, the dead are chopped and fed to crows and vultures. In Korea, lamas are cremated, and their ashes mixed with rice flour to feed birds. In Ladakh, bodies are cremated after 15 to 20 days, during which lamas pray. When a wealthy or powerful person dies, they are cremated in a metal vessel. The ashes are used to create a statue, and a memorial is built where grains, gemstones, metals, incense, and prayer materials are offered.

          Eric Teichman, in Travels of a Consular Officer in Eastern Tibet (p. 84), wrote that the Chinese preserved and mummified the bodies of priests and other dignitaries. The dying person was starved to dehydrate the body. After death, the body was sealed in a container with charcoal. Once the charcoal absorbed all moisture, the body was taken out and coated with gold.

          During mourning, Tibetan men and women wear mourning attire for a hundred days. They avoid colorful clothing, do not comb their hair, or maintain hygiene. Women wear no jewelry or rosaries. To pray for the deceased's peace, wealthy individuals often invite lamas for scripture readings. After a year of ceremonies, all is forgotten in the abyss of time. Overall, Tibetans conduct funeral rites following the Hindu philosophy of the five elements (pancha bhuta).

Conclusion

         The funerary practices of Tibet, often perceived as unconventional or even shocking to outsiders, reflect a deeply rooted spiritual philosophy grounded in the Buddhist worldview and a profound acceptance of the impermanence of life. These customs—ranging from sky burials and cremation to the veneration of sacred relics—are not merely acts of disposal but are imbued with symbolic significance and metaphysical beliefs. The diverse methods of bodily dissolution represent the Tibetan adherence to the doctrine of the five elements, where the body is returned to nature through earth, water, fire, air, and ether.

         The Tibetan attitude toward death—marked by detachment, reverence, and ritual precision—offers valuable insight into how culture, religion, and geography converge to shape a society’s understanding of mortality. Whether through the public offering of the body to birds as an act of generosity and virtue, or the intricate preservation of a revered lama’s remains as a sacred object of worship, the Tibetan way of death reflects not fear or denial, but continuity, transcendence, and cosmic harmony. As such, these rituals stand as a testament to a civilization where the boundary between life and death is not an end, but a passage into deeper spiritual significance

Sources:

Ekai Kawaguchi – Three Years in Tibet (1909).

Eric Teichman – Travels of a Consular Officer in Eastern Tibet (1922).

William Woodville Rockhill – Notes on the Ethnology of Tibet (1885).